The Visible and the Opaque: Differentiating Digital Surveillance

Abstract

Digital surveillance is often discussed as if it represents a homogeneous phenomenon. Yet contemporary policing relies on a heterogeneous set of surveillance technologies that differ in how they operate and how visible they are to citizens. This paper examines citizens' perceptions of different forms of digital surveillance used by the police in law enforcement and their implications for privacy. Drawing on data from a large national survey in Sweden, the study analyses responses to diverse surveillance technologies rather than treating digital surveillance as a single category. The findings show that citizens differentiate between technologies that vary in visibility, familiarity, and data intensity. Visibly recognisable and routinised camera-based practices attract higher levels of unconditional permissibility, whereas more opaque and data-intensive technologies, including facial recognition, Secret Data Reading, and data collection from private actors, are more frequently regarded as permissible only under exceptional circumstances and are associated with more mixed perceptions of their privacy implications. The paper contributes to critical surveillance and data studies by challenging the assumption that digital surveillance constitutes a coherent object of public understanding. Instead, it demonstrates the need for a more differentiated understanding of digital surveillance and its implications for privacy, legitimacy, and democratic governance.

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